Contrary to popular belief there is no master plan being hatched by our pet dogs to take over the home.  So let’s take a look at what dominance is, why it is detrimental to apply it to dog behaviour, and what really is behind the behaviour of our canine companions.

Dominance defined: In ethology (the study of animal behaviour), dominance is defined as a relationship between individuals belonging to the same species (conspecifics), that is established in order to prioritise access to scarce resources, for example food, the opposite sex. Such a relationship cannot exist until one animal consistently defers to another.

Modern qualified behaviourists and trainers take issue with applying the dominance model to the dog for many reasons a few being:

• Dominance theory originated from early studies of unrelated captive wolves. These studies were inaccurate and misleading because the wolves were unrelated and not in their natural environment. Studies of related wild wolves in their natural environment show a family group consisting of parents and their offspring, where the relationships are based on cooperation, with the parents guiding and teaching their young.

• The dog is not a wolf; it is related to the wolf in the same way that humans are related to the chimp. Although dogs maintain some behavioural qualities of wolves and other canids, thousands of years of domestication, selective breeding, and coevolution with humans has greatly altered and shaped their behaviour.

• For the past 14,000 years feral dogs have evolved as scavengers, and although sociable their existence has been semi-solitary. Where relationships are formed the associations are loose, unstructured, and changeable; members frequently come and go, a quality not seen in wolf packs. A certain degree of cooperation confers mutual benefit with fellow canines allowing for access to communal resources and shared mates. These transient relationships are based on cooperation not dominance, and the evanescent nature of these groups requires no leader or alpha. Furthermore any aggression would likely result in the perpetrator being ostracised from the group.

The dangers of the dominance model: This concept is erroneously used and sadly leads to the application of aversive tools and techniques, with the sole purpose of intimidating a dog to submit with the objective of stopping unwanted behaviours. The application of aversive techniques in training gives rise to a very serious issue of safety, for both the dog and the owner. Such techniques can push a dog into self preservation mode, “fight” or “flight” because it feels threatened or unsafe. Just as importantly such methods can potentially harm a dog’s physical and emotional/psychological well being, through pain, anxiety, frustration, fear, and high levels of stress. The fallout can result in a dog that is withdrawn, subdued, or shutdown (not “calm submissive”); because it has given up, as nothing it does works for the better. Or the result is displays of aggression because of frustration, fear, or anxiety, in this way aggression functions as a tool to create distance, make the bad thing go away or stop. However if this also fails, if we keep pushing a dog’s self preservation button, or the dog’s temperament is such that it is not able to cope with sustained frustration, anxiety, and high levels of stress, then all that is left is active aggression; a bite.

Motivation drives behaviour: All behaviour is driven by motivation, humans, dogs, cats, rabbits, rodents, horses.  There is always some function, some purpose, a motivation to behaviour(s). Although there could be any number of reasons a dog may present with problem behaviour, here we will consider motivation in relation to the following categories:

Social attention and interaction: Dogs are a sociable species, we have all heard the term “It’s just attention seeking behaviour” applied to humans, but owners will often overlook this very simple explanation as a cause for many common problems behaviours. Let’s take a look at a very typical scenario. Consider this, Fido your 10 week old pup is bored, he has been used to attention and interaction on demand with his littermates. You are doing chores and Fido bounds over to you and nips your ankle, you say “No!” attention, you gently push Fido away interaction, and as you do so you look at him directly making eye contact attention. From Fido’s point of view this works, and each time this scenario is repeated, this behaviour is strengthened, and by the time Fido is 5 months this may have escalated in to a serious problem behaviour.

Tangibles: Like humans dogs have needs, wants, preferences, and desires for certain things such as food, activities, toys, and objects etc., which provide motivation for behaviour. It is not bad for dogs to want these things it is perfectly normal. However it is all too easy for dogs to “learn” (because we humans inadvertently teach them), to display inappropriate or undesired actions to attain these things, and this is when problem behaviours can arise.

Distance, survival, escape, and/or avoidance: Many dogs are at a disadvantage because important factors such as genetics, imprinting, habituation, and socialisation, which play a vital role in shaping dogs temperament, were lacking. Such dogs are likely to develop a nervous, reactive, anxious, shy, and/or fearful disposition, coupled with poor social skills. Therefore many of these dogs will not cope well with certain everyday situations and events. They will be motivated to create distance, escape, or avoid the situation, and in extreme cases they will be quick to switch to “fight/flight” response when faced with their fears. It is important to stress that punitive training can also put dogs at a disadvantage.  Fear aggression is one of the most common problem behaviours in this category. Whatever the nature of the issue, treatment should be management, remedial habituation and socialisation and training. Under no circumstances should aversive training techniques be applied. (See: The dangers of the dominance model).

Sensory and intrinsic motivation: Various behaviours are internally rewarding, or self-reinforcing. Such behaviours are not dependent on external consequences, what is happening on the inside is important. For example, when left alone Fido barks excessively, he barks because he is bored and possibly also anxious. Barking is a sensory, self-reinforcing behaviour for Fido because it relieves him of boredom and stress, and makes him feel better.  Excessive barking is annoying and distressing to the owner; however, for the dog the behaviour serves the function of helping it cope with boredom or anxiety. The behaviour of excessive barking has been adopted by Fido because it functions as a coping strategy. To help resolve this type of problem behaviour we first need to change the way Fido feels when left alone, and provide enrichment to keep Fido mentally stimulated, effectively we are changing/removing the motivators.

This should make it clear that attributing dominance to problem behaviours completely disregards the true nature of behaviour; all behaviour is driven by motivation, it has a function. Canine behaviour is as simple as it is complex; that is, certain behaviours may appear to be complex, but there is normally a simple explanation. We just need to figure out two aspects; motivation and reinforcement. What is the purpose of the behaviour and how is it being rewarded?

#1. From an early age train the recall in a positive way: Find a good puppy class, preferably one where many fun games are practised off-leash. For example one handler gently restrains Fido while his owner shows him a treat, the owner then runs a little distance away, holds out arms in a welcome gesture and calls Fido in a happy tone of voice. When the handler is confident that Fido is focused on his owner Fido is released and runs over to his owner, and he receives the treat, lots of positive happy verbal feedback, and petting. Keep practising and as Fido gets good at this game, gradually increase the distance he is required to run.  If you don’t have a helper to hold Fido, then simply run backwards and encourage him to follow you, and reward with treats, praise, and petting.

#2. Never deliberately scold your dog when he comes back to you: This is a typical scenario, Fido runs off to investigate some interesting scent, when Fido returns to us, our first instinct is to be annoyed and to scold him. However, in effect we are not punishing the behaviour that Fido engaged in while he was away from us, but rather the act of returning to us. Fido soon learns that it is not much fun to come back to us! It is vital that we always welcome our dogs back to us, no matter what they have done.

#3. Do not inadvertently teach your dog that “come” means end of walk, play, and freedom: This is a very common mistake and it is very easy to do. Many owners do so accidentally in the following way. We only call Fido back at the end of the walk and then always put his leash on and take him home. Fido learns “come” means an end to fun, friends and freedom. We can prevent this by calling Fido back during the walk several times, hold his collar gently, give him some treats, then send him off again. Mix it up a little, call Fido back, and ask him to sit, attach the leash for 30 seconds, wait for eye contact, and then reward him with freedom. Make sure that calling your dog does not always signal an end to walks and play.

#4. Reward your dog in various ways for coming when called: There are many ways we can reward Fido for coming when called. Generally in the early stages of teaching the recall we can use food rewards, but as we progress it is important that we make use of other rewards and “life rewards”, a few examples:

• A quick game of tug
• A throw of a Frisbee/ball
• Freedom
• Opportunity to greet other dog(s)/resume play with other dog(s)

In addition if we pay attention to activities that Fido enjoys while out on walks, we can use these activities as rewards (as long as they are safe). This means that when Fido comes back when called we can instantly reward him with an activity which he wants most at that moment. Of course for reasons of safety there are times when Fido must stay close and be on leash when we call him back. However if we call him back regularly and reward him by releasing him, then the occasional time that we have keep him close and on leash will not be detrimental to his training.

#5. Never play chasing games with your puppy: Every so often I see a puppy dash away from its owner at the last possible second on a recall. The puppy will then bounce at the owner and offer a play bow, and will run off again as soon as the owner gets closer. This is frequently a direct consequence of people in the puppy’s family chasing it for fun. It can be very cute when Fido picks up a toy or sock and starts to run away from the humans around him. It is hard to resist giving chase. Unfortunately this teaches Fido that it is great fun to run away from his owners, rather than towards them. Therefore it is better to teach Fido that all play begins when he comes to us and not when he runs away.

#6. Be your dog’s best PR; positive reinforcer: A simple way to encourage Fido to come when called is to be rewarding, fun, and nice to be around. If we are always irritable or unresponsive to our dogs when they come to us, where is the motivation for them to return? Conversely, if we are a source of fun, games, affection, and make use of the endless list of life rewards at our disposal, our dogs will find us very reinforcing to be around.

#7. Walk your puppy off-leash in safe environments when possible: Create safe opportunities where you can walk your puppy off-leash. If you have a securely fenced off garden make good use of it. Walk Fido around the garden and reward him for staying close, giving you eye contact, responding to his name, and of course for coming closer when called. Young puppies are typically very dependent on their owners and it is generally very easy to shape the behaviour of staying close while walking, yet the puppy is still walking freely. So make the most of puppyhood and find safe enclosed areas for short walks.

#8. Play the follow me game: If we follow Fido around or run after him when he goes off, then he will learn that we will join him soon enough and he will simply go on his merry way. So we should avoid this, and instead when Fido goes off in a direction of his own make a noise to get his attention and simply walk or run in the opposite direction. Play hide and seek! At random moments during the walk when Fido is not paying attention to where you are, hide behind a tree. (Make sure you can keep a watch to ensure Fido is safe, but he cannot see you). When Fido comes looking for you, reward him with lots of praise, treats or a game. You can take this a step further and turn it into a really fun game by having a family member or friend hold Fido while you go off and hide. Fido is then given the cue “go find” and is released.

#9. Be unpredictable on walks: It is very normal for us humans to follow a routine when we walk. We get to the park, beach, woods, etc., and we walk a predictable route, then leave or head back to the car. Fido very quickly learns this routine and the problem is he learns at a certain point the walk is over, end of fun. This is when Fido will take great measures to dodge you because he does not want the walk to end. So be unpredictable and keep Fido guessing. Vary the route you take, change direction several times, recall Fido at various points on the walk, attach the leash, walk a little way, and remove the leash.

#10. Walk in varied locations: If possible, try to walk Fido in various locations do not go to the same place every day.

Are dogs lying awake at night plotting a coup?

Have you ever wondered if your dog is dominant? Chances are you have, if only because over  the last half century, every canine misbehavior from house soiling to door dashing has been  deemed a “dominance” problem. Your dog growls at visitors? Dominance, say well-meaning friends. He doesn’t always come when called? He’s telling you he’s boss, according to popular dog books. She pulls on leash or jumps up to greet you? She’s declaring alpha status. He prefers couches to floors? Watch out!

Perhaps the most unlikely behaviors heard attributed to dominance are coprophagia (stool eating) and fetching a ball.

How did dominance become one of the most popular and unthinking labels ever bandied about in dog circles?

A Catchy Concept

The concept of dominance - or “alpha,” meaning the highest ranked individual - originally came from some studies of wolf packs in the 1940s. The concept was catchy, and when it trickled down to popular dog culture, it took hold with the power of mythology. It quickly became “common knowledge” that domestic dogs are naturally dominant or will become so if their people tolerate certain behaviors. These dogs, it was claimed, will constantly challenge and test their owners until they are forcefully shown human leadership.

So-called dominance exercises were - and in some circles still are - widely recommended to prevent the dog from taking over the entire household. These exercises include not feeding him until after you’ve eaten, letting him through doorways only after you, forbidding access to furniture, and not playing tug-of-war.

In reality, there is no evidence that these procedures prevent aggression or any other behavioral problem. In fact, one study found no correlation between playing tug-of-war or allowing a dog on the bed and the development of aggressive behavior.

Extreme Treatment

Beyond those exercises, many authors and trainers urged owners to hold or force their dogs into submissive positions, sometimes roughly, to the point of creating fearful responses. Today, some call these “gentling” exercises and recommend using them with puppies.

For example, you roll or flip your puppy on her back, and don’t let her up until she stops resisting. The claim is beguilingly simple: by forcing a dog to assume a submissive posture and then rewarding her for tolerating it, you teach her to submit to your leadership.

But notice the claim’s unspoken assumption that leadership is gained through force. In canine society, leadership is not won through brute physical domination. And a wide range of dogs with normal, sociable temperaments naturally will resist being forced on their backs, even to the point of defensive aggression.

Humans are not that different. Think how you would react if your boss established his or her “leadership” by physical force!

The technique has morphed further into a facile test of dominance. Force a dog on his back, and if he resists, he’s dominant! Instant (albeit wrong) diagnoses have wide appeal in homes, animal shelters, obedience schools, and even veterinary clinics.

Some so-called experts even suggest using violent techniques like scruff shakes and alpha rolls. At the extreme end, some trainers once advocated downright abusive methods, such as hanging a dog by a choke chain and leash (called helicoptering) until she passed out, or forcing her head underwater until she lost consciousness.

These tactics were considered treatment for behaviors as mild as digging or as serious as aggression.

Flaws Of The Wolf Pack Studies

Unfortunately, our collective preoccupation with doggy dominance hasn’t served us or our dogs well. To begin with, it’s based on some outdated and flawed science as well as a fair amount of nonsense.

Dr. Ian Dunbar outlines three major flaws of the studies of wolf packs in the 1930s and 1940s. First, they were short-term and focused on the most obvious facet of wolf life, namely hunting. As a result, the studies gathered unrepresentative data and drew rather sweeping conclusions about wolf behavior (and later, dog behavior) based on about 1% of wolf life.

Second, the researchers observed what are now known to be ritualistic displays and misinterpreted them. The bulk of dominance mythology comes from these misinterpretations.

Take alpha rolls. The early researchers thought that the higher-ranking wolf forcibly rolled subordinate wolves to exert his dominance. Modern studies have shown that alpha rolls are part of an appeasement ritual offered voluntarily by the subordinate wolf, not forced by the superior.

A subordinate wolf offers his muzzle, and when the higher-ranking wolf “pins” it, the subordinate rolls over and presents his belly. There is no force. Canine behaviorist Jean Donaldson, author of the award-winning book The Culture Clash, says, “The truth is, there is not one documented case of a wolf forcefully rolling another wolf to the ground. Nor is there one case of a mother wolf (or dog) ‘scruff-shaking’ her puppies.” A wolf would flip another wolf against its will only if he were planning to kill it. The same goes for a mother shaking her pup by the scruff. Both are rare events.

The third flaw was that the researchers made some wild extrapolations from their data. Their first leap of logic was applying their conclusions to dogs. Their second was applying them to human-canine interactions.

Dogs Are Not Watered Down Wolves

The fact is, dogs aren’t wolves. Wolves are dogs’ closest relatives - just as chimpanzees are ours - but dogs became a separate species possibly as long as 135,000 years ago. Although dogs retain some characteristics of wolves and other canids, thousands of years of domestication, co-evolution with humans, and selective breeding have changed them profoundly.

Dunbar once said, “Saying ‘I want to interact with my dog better, so I’ll learn from the wolves’ makes about as much sense as saying ‘I want to improve my parenting - let’s see how the chimps do it.”

Applying the wolf studies to human-canine interactions was nonsense, according to Dunbar. Despite the flimsy evidence, books and methods abounded, exhorting owners to be “leader of the pack.” They portrayed an adversarial human-canine relationship and advocated combative training methods that relied on force, punishment, and even pain. After all, force was thought to be necessary to put ambitious dogs in their place.

In her book Dog Friendly Dog Training, Andrea Arden writes, “Rather than teaching our best friends, we were advised to physically dominate our dog to bring him into line.”

In stark contrast to the popular myth of wolves (and dogs) ruling with an iron paw, however, wolves’ and dogs’ social structure is much more complex, flexible, and subtle.

Benevolent Leadership

Based on better and longer studies of canines, scientists have learned that the mark of a true leader is the ability to control without force, according to Dr. Myrna Milani, a veterinarian and behaviorist. She points out that, in the wild, animals who rule with brute force get eliminated from the gene pool, because force requires so much energy and puts the animals at high risk of death, injury, or predation. They do not stoop to physical domination to prove their points. They don’t need to. Day-to-day interactions are based largely on deferential and cooperative behaviors, and conflicts are settled by elaborate displays designed to inhibit aggression or turn off threats.

So despite popular myth, alpha does not mean physically dominant or most aggressive. It means in control of resources. A leader is one who has earned the right to control whatever resources he or she thinks are important. What’s important is flexible. It changes depending on the dog’s motivation, the context, and the situation at the moment. So a dog might give up a prime sleeping place because he couldn’t care less, or relinquish a succulent bone because she’s lost interest.

Maintaining Order Through Submission

Another assumption of pack theory was that wolves, and therefore dogs, organized themselves in a fixed, linear dominance hierarchy - a chicken-like pecking order in which the dominant animals maintain order by threatening and intimidating underlings.

Now experts agree that wolves form an appeasement (also called subordinance) hierarchy, in which subordinate animals maintain order through active displays of submission and deference.

Donaldson offers the Army as a human analogy. Lower-ranking soldiers first salute their superiors with a flourish and then get a cursory salute in return. This is a classic appeasement hierarchy. A general doesn’t enter a room and throw his weight around. He simply appears and everyone starts saluting.

But going beyond observations of wolf behavior, modern researchers have studied the behavior of village, feral, and companion dogs to understand canine social structures better.

These scientists observed loose social structures that were flexible and unpredictable. The structures observed were determined more by factors like food availability and human intervention than by any innate sense of social hierarchy. These same experts now emphasize the importance of treating the domestic dog as the distinct species it is, not as a sort of watered-down wolf.

Problems With The Dominance Label

Another main flaw of dominance theory is the term itself. A cornerstone of science is precise, unambiguous definitions that facilitate communication. Ethological terms like dominance are not precise definitions but are constructs used to label and summarize a range of behaviors. One problem with constructs, psychologists Drs. Garry Martin and Joseph Pear point out, is that they lead to circular reasoning.

For example, a dog that growls when approached near her food bowl might be labeled dominant. Then if you ask the owner why the dog growls, she’ll answer, “Because she’s dominant.” So the label becomes a pseudoexplanation for the behavior.

The label also can affect the way the animal is treated. The dominance label has been used to justify punishing dogs, especially those that react defensively to force-based training methods. The label also tends to focus attention on problem behaviors rather than on teaching and rewarding good ones.

A related term, dominance aggression, is similarly problematic. What does it mean? There’s no scientific consensus on how to define it academically, much less on how to identify it in the real world.

In Pet Behavior Protocols, Dr. Suzanne Hetts, an applied animal behaviorist, writes, “Sometimes it’s very difficult to categorize aggression more specifically than offensive or defensive. The behavioral descriptions of when aggression occurs and the associated body postures often don’t fit well into any of the classification schemes in the scientific literature on aggression. In addition, dogs may display more than one type of aggression, which contributes to the difficulty in categorization.”

If behavior as obvious as aggression is so difficult to categorize, how accurate can it be to label subtle, everyday behavior as “dominant”? It’s a judgment that presumes to understand dogs’ motives when, in fact, we have no idea what they’re thinking. There are dozens of possible causes, functions, or motives for any problem behavior.

Moving Past The Label

In many aggression cases, the history and description of the dogs’ behavior are inconsistent with our traditional understanding of dominance. So-called dominant dogs often show ambivalent, fearful, and anxious body language. They may shake and act very submissively during and after a bite. Studies show that dogs displaying “dominance aggression” get less exercise, are more fearful of people, are more excitable, and react more to high-pitched noises. All this is inconsistent with our notion of the fearless, dominant dog and suggests other factors at play in aggressive behavior.

This new information challenges us to interpret the social relationship between dogs and owners in a more sophisticated way than as simple dominant-submissive relationships.

Fortunately, behavioral science and most dog trainers have moved past the flawed dominance label. A new term being used for dominance aggression is status-related aggression. Treatment focuses on teaching and rewarding the dog for desired behaviors, regardless of status. It also seeks to identify the many other possible causes of problem behaviors, such as fear or anxiety, insufficient socialization, boredom, lack of exercise, too little companionship, or lack of training.

This article has been published with the kind permission of the author:

Carmen Buitrago, MS, ACAAB, CPDT | Director of Behavior & Training at Cascade Pet Camp. Carmen is Certified Professional Dog Trainer (CPDT) and an associate Certified Applied Animal Behaviorist (CAAB) with over 10 years of experience in the field. She earned her master’s degree in animal behavior in 2007, winning the Marion Breland-Bailey award for her student research in canine learning. She graduated with honors from the esteemed San Francisco SPCA Academy for Dog Trainers, and has developed and managed animal shelter training programs in Washington, Oregon and Illinois. She gives presentations on animal behavior and training at conferences and in the community, writes articles for industry publications, and provides comprehensive services for dog and cat owners, including consultations for pet behavior problems, private training lessons, board-and-train services, and a variety of training classes from beginning to advanced obedience, Canine Good Citizen, Rally and Musical Freestyle.

By Chris Biro

The question is often asked “Is it important to offer a treat every time you click a behavior?”

Yes it is important to follow each click with a treat. The clicker only gains its value as a training tool due to the association the animal makes with the sound of the clicker and the following treat. Fail to deliver the treat and the effectiveness of the clicker will diminish.

This is different than choosing not to click a correct behavior and thus not reinforcing that correct behavior - see also the article on Variable Reinforcement. The click serves three main functions:

1. The click identifies the exact moment the animal did something that earned it a goody.
2. The click promises a goody has been earned as is on its way.
3. The click signals the end of the behavior.

A click is a bridging signal and it means something very specific to the animal, otherwise it is of no value. That is the concept behind what is termed a secondary reinforcer (or conditioned reinforcer). The secondary reinforcer gains its reinforcing value from being paired with another reinforcer - the primary reinforcer (unconditioned reinforcer) needs no pairing with another reinforcer to have reinforcement effect. If you use the secondary reinforcer and fail to offer the following reinforcement, then essentially you are undoing the pairing and at some point your secondary reinforcer will have no value any more or at minimum will have weakened value. It may cease to function as a secondary reinforcer.

Failing to follow the click with the promised treat will diminish the value and effect of the click as a training tool.

I was just going over some material I have from Marion and Bob Bailey and noticed the following. Due to past discussion I have had with other trainers of what qualifies a reinforcer as a primary or secondary reinforcer I am posting this quote. Some have previously insisted that social interests and play interests are secondary reinforcers because they are “learned”. I have disagreed on the grounds that the fact that they are learned is not part of the definition, and that the only consideration that really matters as per the definition is the inherent reinforcement value and not needing to be paired with another reinforcer to gain reinforcement effect.  Notice here that they specifically and very clearly include play and social activities as primary reinforcers. Again the defining issue is NOT about being “learned”, it is about having reinforcement value without associative pairing with some other reinforcing stimuli.

“The behaviors we have been examining here are typical of what goes on in the case of the so called primary reinforcing stimuli. These are stimuli that are usually associated with basic biological necessities such as food, drink, a mate, the young, body comforts. Primary reinforcers also include other natural, built-in, often preferred behavior patterns that the organism engages in spontaneously. These include social contacts and social activities, play and “exercise” behaviors, exploration. We may also identify here the primary punishing stimuli, or primary aversive stimuli. These are punishers or aversive stimuli that are naturally painful or unpleasant — natural objects or events that the organism in question would tend to avoid if possible.” Marion and Bob Bailey.

Marion Bailey not only had her Ph.D. but also had the experience of being one of B.F. Skinners grad students and she also had the experience of training thousands of animals through her company Animal Behavior Enterprises (ABE).  Her scientifically reviewed paper, Misbehavior of Organisms, written by Marion and Keller Breland (her first husband), had significant impact on the world of operant conditioning. Bob Bailey, as the general manager of ABE, also knew B. F. Skinner and trained thousands of animals. In my personal opinion there is currently no one with equivalent credentials on behavioral subjects than Marion and Bob Bailey.

Misbehavior of Organisms is a short paper that is well worth the time it takes to read it. I would highly encourage everyone interested in animal training to become familiar with this paper. It emphasizes that operant conditioning is only part of the behavior equation, with evolution and instinct being critically important.

Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are not dependent on their association with other reinforcers. (Compare secondary reinforcers.)

Secondary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are dependent on their association with other reinforcers. Also called conditioned reinforcers. (Compare primary reinforcers.)

Condition Reinforcer(s): A stimulus that initially has no reinforcing properties but, through occurring simultaneously with unconditioned or strongly conditioned reinforcers, acquires reinforcing properties. Also called secondary, learned reinforcer.

This article is © Chris Biro @ Wings At Liberty and has been published with the kind permission of the author. Since 1993, Chris Biro has been flight training parrots as part of The Pirate’s Parrot Show, an educationally based pirate-themed parrot show that has performed at state and county fairs across the US since 1989. He flies parrots in a variety of environments ranging from busy state fairgrounds to high mountain desert canyons and cliffs. He is the founder and owner of the freeflight email list, started in 1990, that currently has over 1800 members across the world. Chris has presented about freeflight at events such as American Federation of Aviculture (AFA) Conference, International Association of Avian Trainers and Educators (IAATE) Conference (bird trainers) and Parrots International Symposium (parrot conservation).

Written by Aidan Bindoff

If we expect our dogs to understand us, surely, we must first attempt to understand our dogs!

Dogs learn by the consequences of their actions. “If I drop that ball at his feet, he will often throw it for me” or “Last time I stole a sausage from the barbecue, I burnt my tongue. Better not do that again.”

Dogs also have emotions. “Those fireworks scare me!” or “Someone is at the door, YIPEEE!!!”

Both of those concepts, learning by consequences and the experience of emotion, are something we can relate to. We might learn as children that eating all our vegetables gets us dessert, leaving them on the plate means missing out! We might associate a certain song with a special time in our lives, bringing back good feelings.

Learning By Consequences

Learning by the consequences of our actions is called “Operant Conditioning”. When something has a rewarding consequence, we learn to repeat it. When something doesn’t have any rewarding consequences, we tend not to repeat it. When something has a punishing consequence, we learn to avoid the situation, possibly altogether.

Learning By Association

This is called “Classical Conditioning” or “Pavlovian Conditioning” after Ivan Pavlov who discovered that when a stimulus (such as a ringing bell) is paired with an event (such as food being given), an association is made. For a dog, the ringing bell would have a pleasant association; the dog has learned that food will follow. Here we are getting into the realms of emotion!

Things that you associate with good things will also tend to give you good feelings. Things that you associate with bad things will tend to give you bad feelings.

Operant and Classical conditioning describe different mechanisms for learning, but the two go hand in hand.

How Strong Emotions Affect Learning

It has been observed that when an animal - dog, human or otherwise, is affected by strong emotions, rational learning can be affected. Imagine the ridiculous and terrifying scenario of trying to learn how to program your VCR while a crazed murderer is smashing your door down with an axe. You just want to get out of there; you don’t care if you miss the final episode of ‘Inspector Rex’! (Ok, you still care…)

Imagine teaching a class full of excited kids their ‘multiplication tables’ while they are running around playing with each other, laughing and joking. Hopeless, no good teacher would try to do that without settling them down first, even if it meant doing something different first.

It is the same with dogs. There is no point trying to get rational learning from a frightened, anxious, or just plain over-the-top excitable dog without addressing the underlying issues first.

Emotional Issues Must Be Addressed Before Conseqences Even Matter

There is a very good reason for this, and it has to do with the way the brain works. To ensure survival, both human and dog brains have a simple rule - “do what you have to do to survive”. When a dog perceives a threat, the part of the brain responsible for survival takes precedence over the part of the brain responsible for rational learning.

As an example, imagine you have a dog who is aggressing towards another dog. Using the consequence of punishment (collar correction, verbal etc) will have very little effect in actually punishing (reducing) the behaviour. It may, however, contribute to the cause of that dog’s aggression by reinforcing his unpleasant association with other dogs!

Let’s use the same example but this time we ‘reward’ the dog with food when he shows aggression towards another dog. The act of aggression is unlikely to be reinforced in this case, because that part of the brain is taking a back-seat. The ‘learning by association’ part of the brain, however, is getting a dose of something pleasant in the presence of the other dog. It is starting to make a ‘good’ association with the other dog, instead of a ‘fearful’ association.

It is hard to guess how much “Classical Conditioning” and how much “Operant Conditioning” is taking place until after the event.

It all seems rather paradoxical at first, but hopefully I have explained it well enough that it makes sense! Of course, in the above example it would be far better to give the dog food before he aggresses and try and stay far enough away to avoid a rehearsal of aggression altogether. Then you can reward the dog for non-aggressive behaviour too. You get the benefit of reinforcing good behaviour, and making a positive association all at once - what a great deal!

What Happens Next?

At some point, if we have been successful, the dog will be in a more suitable frame of mind for rational learning. The dog that is nervous around other dogs will not be so nervous any more, and will be able to complete a short ‘sit-stay’ in the obedience class. Eventually he will be able to complete a long ‘drop-stay’ with handler out of sight. The dog who ‘doesn’t like men’ will be able to accept a brief and heavily rewarded ‘stand for exam’ from a man, and eventually, the full examination from teeth to tail!

This article has been published with the kind permission of Aidan Bindoff @ www.positivepetzine.com

Motivation is what spurs a dog to act. So is there some secret to motivating your dog? No, you simply train your dog using what your dog wants, likes, and needs to achieve the behaviours that you want.

Foundation Training

From the very first day your new puppy or rescue dog enters your home start laying a motivational foundation for your dog. This foundation will stay with your dog and will keep him working and cooperating with you during the learning phase of training, and once behaviours have been learnt. This is why it’s called foundation training, if you build it, it lasts.  However if you don’t take the time to build a solid foundation in the early stages of training, what you will find is that further down the line, cracks develop; your dog’s training will break down.

A dog with a strong social drive naturally has the desire to be actively involved as part of a team, this is not every dog’s nature, but with effective motivation you can build this. The end goal in the final stages of training is for your dog to find the activity undertaken with its handler to be intrinsically rewarding. This is why laying the motivational foundation is so important in the early stages of training, don’t make the mistake of thinking that your dog should just naturally comply with your requests, or “do it to please”.

Intrinsic motivation is built by engaging in fun training activities with your dog using primary motivators such as food and play, moving on to life rewards once behaviours have been learned to reliability. Intrinsic motivation simply makes your dog feel good on the inside, by using ongoing positive reinforcement training this motivation is shaped and steadily becomes generalised.

Life Rewards

Many owners miss the opportunity of using everyday life rewards to motivate their dog. Take the time to observe your dog’s behaviour – when at the park what does he like doing, when in class what does he like doing, when at home what does he like doing?  Make a note of the everyday activities your dog enjoys doing, in different environments, and use these activities as a reward to motivate your dog, make them contingent on desirable behaviour.

Modern trainers no longer use punishment based training because it is out-of-date, unkind to the dog, and much less effective than reward based training. Traditional training is about making a dog do what you want, modern training is about motivating a dog to want to do what you want.

Dogs don’t do good or bad behaviours, right or wrong behaviours, they just do behaviours that work, meaning that their behaviour has resulted in some pleasant consequence; a positive reinforcer.  Therefore if we humans would like to teach our dogs what works, then it naturally follows that we should train using a positive reinforcer.

All animals (including humans) learn to repeat behaviours that have had pleasant consequences. Modern reward based training is about getting a dog to want to do what you want by providing an immediate positive reinforcer so the dog learns to do that behaviour again in the future.

The most practical and easy to use primary positive reinforcer is food, food is a primary reinforcer because it is something all animals are born needing to survive, they don’t need praise and petting to survive.  Therefore as a reward, food holds a much higher value as a positive reinforcer than does praise or petting.  Meaning food is a better motivator for learning, a better motivator for working, and a better motivator for your dog to pay attention to you!  Attention is everything, it is the prerequisite for all learning and training. Praise and petting alone cannot compete with environmental distractions for your dog’s attention!

During the early stages of learning food is simply the easiest positive reinforcer to use, but it’s important to note that you will not always need to use food.  Once your dog has learned a repertoire of behaviours to a certain level of reliability, then there are many other reinforcers you can use; play, attention, throw of a ball, toss of a frisbee, game of tug, as well as going for a walk, greeting other dogs,  sniffing a tree, leash going on, leash coming off, door being opened, and countless other life rewards. Life rewards are anything a dog likes doing: going for a walk, likes attaining: attention, or likes gaining access to: the sofa.

So do yourself and your dog a huge favour, throw away your dog’s food bowl now. Use the same amount of food he would be given for free everyday in his bowl and feed it piece by piece, contingent upon desired behaviour. This dispels with the notion of spoiling your dog with treats, instead your dog is doing as nature intended, working for his food. In addition he is learning that it pays to please you and give you attention.

Note: Eating has a calming effect on dogs, dogs that are anxious or reactive tend to calm down when food is used for training. Using harsh corrective methods will only increase the stress level of anxious or reactive dogs in training.

By Karin Bridge - Get S.M.A.R.T. Dogs

(Note: this article deals with the most common type of dog aggression of lunging and barking on lead at other dogs without a history of actually causing injury)

Most pet owners long for a friendly dog that plays happily with each and every dog it meets. The reality however is that many dogs act aggressively in the presence of other dogs.  

Aggression is a complex and emotive issue. When a dog aggresses you immediately have two problems: the canine problem where one dog may be intimidated or injured and a public relations problem where the owner of the victim is justifiably angry.  The first thing you need to do is to assess just how severe your dog’s aggression problem is.

Assessing dog aggression

Behaviourists look at two aspects of aggression to assess the extent of a problem:

1. Bite threshold: how quickly does your dog resort to aggressive behaviour?  Would it take an unusual mix of circumstances before your dog would bite or is it an immediate reaction when he sees another dog?
2. Bite inhibition: how hard does your dog bite?  Dogs should learn to limit the power of their jaws in puppy class bite too hard and play ends.

Perhaps surprisingly, bite inhibition is more important than a high bite threshold. In other words, it is better to have a dog that snaps a lot but never injures another dog, than a dog that seldom fights but when it does the victim ends up needing treatment.

Even though the snapping dog may be a social embarrassment, it is intentionally warning other dogs to keep away without making contact. This gives you the opportunity to work on the problem without putting others at risk.

• Dogs with poor bite inhibition, whose attacks necessitate a visit to the veterinarian - have a serious aggression problem and should be seen by an animal behaviourist who will plan an individual treatment program.

• Dont confuse ‘shouting’ with ‘murder’.  It is quite natural for dogs to occasionally communicate with hackles up, a lip curl and snap. Older dogs and bitches often put puppies and male dogs respectively in their place using just such body language.  If your dog acts in this way with specific dogs without doing any harm you probably don’t have a problem.

How predictable is your dogs aggression?

The more you can predict the target of your dog’s aggression and the context in which it is likely to occur, the easier it is to plan ahead and manage the situation.

Ask yourself these questions:

What type of dog is the target of the aggression?

• All dogs?
• Particular breeds?
• Particular sizes of dog small, large?
• Dogs of a certain appearance length of coat, colour?
• Males or females?  Dogs that have been de-sexed?

 In what context is the aggression likely to occur?

• On leash or off leash?
• When playing roughly?
• Around resources such as a favourite toy or food?
• Near you?
• At specific areas e.g. the park, at home, local streets?

Why do dogs aggress repeatedly ?

1. The scary dog moves away: From your dog &/or from a resource the dog wishes to control such as a toy, food, or you.
2. It makes the dog feel better:  When a dog is stressed by the presence of another dog, a chemical bath of adrenalin and other neurotransmitters build in the brain.  When the dog responds by acting aggressively the chemicals are disseminated and the dog feels physiologically better.

Your dog learns that aggression is a strategy that works and makes him feel better. A little bit of punishment on your part such as shouting ‘NO!’ is unlikely to be sufficient to counteract these two large rewards.

Fear is a main cause of aggression

The vast majority of aggressive attacks are caused by fearfulness and a desire to move away the scary object.  The most common causes of fear aggression are:

#1 Lack of early socialisation with other dogs: Dogs, who have failed to learn canine social etiquette and body language prior to sixteen weeks of age, may have problems socialising with other dogs for the rest of their lives.

This is one of the main reasons puppy preschools were begun - to give puppies, during this important developmental period, the opportunity to interact with a variety of breeds, learning appropriate patterns of play. For some breeds, less genetically inclined to be social with dogs this early opportunity to learn is essential.

#2 A learned response (nurture), caused by restraint and unintentional signalling from owners:  Most dogs are more aggressive on leash than off for three main reasons:

1. The owner unintentionally signals the dog to aggress through his body language and behaviour (see below).
2. Dogs have an opposition reflex, the more you pull back the more the dog will pull in the opposite direction.
3. Unable to flee the situation (restrained by the lead) the only other option is to fight.

Why does the dog think you are signalling an attack?

Imagine this scenario; your dog has a snap at a dog that stuck his nose in his face (an appropriate canine response to rudeness).

Mortified and embarrassed at your nice dog’s rudeness you jerk the lead sharply and say ‘no!’  Your dog finds this attitude of yours rather strange, perhaps it would be better simply to keep dogs at an arm’s distance  - so next time he sees a dog he gives a bit of a growl while the dog is still a few meters away.

Worrying that you may have a problem developing you say ‘no!’ again and this time apply a harder jerk.  Next time you see a dog approaching you decide to be reactive, you tighten the lead, take shorter stiffer steps and hold your breath.

Your dog, who is an expert at reading body language, is now convinced that there is a problem with dogs approaching. As you’ve become so tense he’d better get in there quick before this dog has a chance to attack and/or you get angry with him again.

To make matters worse owners may react to this aggression by:

• Reassuring the dog using a soothing or praise tone of voice “its alright sweetheart, that doggy isn’t going to hurt us” thereby reinforcing the behaviour.

• Applying  punishment or an angry tone of voice thereby increasing adrenalin and associating the appearance of another dog with bad things or

• Setting a bad example shooing the other dog away thereby convincing their dog that strange dogs are to be sent away by whatever means necessary -  for a dog this means an aggressive display.

#3 Nature the role of genetics:  It is worth noting that some owners seem to do everything wrong and still have a friendly, sociable dog while other caring owners who try to do everything right land up with a dog aggressive dog.

Dogs are born with varying degrees of social inclination particularly to animals outside their own family group.  Dogs that are more naturally anxious and reactive to their environment are more likely to resort to aggression as are dogs that like to be in charge of every situation. The best you can do is to try to understand and work with the your own dogs unique personality.

Aggression not directly related to fear

Barrier Frustration - another type of on-leash aggression.  Although many of the above factors may still apply, the main reason for this type of aggression is a frustrated desire to contact the other animal.  Usually this type of aggression is seen in young, out-going dogs that are play deprived or again lack socialisation.

They do not actually want to hurt the other animal but they are desperate to get to it and interact with it in some way.  Unfortunately very often these dogs lack canine social skills so their advances may be met with some aggression as they bounce rudely into the personal space of the other dog.

Barrier frustration can also be seen in cars, or along fences when dogs are prohibited from contacting one another by a physical barrier.

Challenging behaviour - if the target of your male dog’s aggression is other male dogs, then the problem is quite probably a “guy thing”.  This behaviour is most commonly seen in young, entire males but may also be seen in some outgoing bitches.

If your dog frequently engages in challenging fights where dogs are getting hurt then de-sexing is worth considering and the younger the better before fighting becomes a habit which can linger long after the hormones are gone. In the case of females, de-sexing will be of no benefit.

Resource Guarding -  some dogs protect their valued possessions such as balls, tug toys, food bags, and that most valuable of all resources YOU!

Prey drive/aggression - if your dog most often targets fast moving dogs, particularly small white fluffy ones, it is quite likely he/she has a strong prey drive.

This dog may be perfectly well socialised and non-aggressive with dogs in general but once it sees something that looks like a rabbit running, he shifts into a whole other world known as prey drive.  Most dogs have some degree of prey drive but for those with strong, natural instincts to chase and kill, it is potentially a very serious problem.

Prey elicited aggression has a strong genetic component and needs to be treated differently to other aggression problems.  It is mentioned here for diagnostic reasons only.

Steps to treatment

1. Decide the severity of your dog’s aggression problem:  If your dog is more of an embarrassment than a physical danger to other dogs, feel free to implement the following procedures.  If your dog’s aggression problem has resulted in serious injury to other dogs you will need to see a behaviour specialist for further advice.

2. Accept responsibility for your dogs safety and the safety of other dogs.

3. Prevent rehearsal:  Many owners will suggest you let the dogs ‘sort it out’ or ‘it will do my dog good if your dog tells him off’.  While this philosophy may be acceptable for two well socialised dogs with good bite inhibition, it is not going to benefit the dog aggressive dog - it’ll just be more practice and more confirmation of the belief that biting is a good strategy for removing unwanted dogs.

The more your dog rehearses this strategy the more ingrained it will become. That is why it is essential not to put your dog in a position where he feels the need to aggress. You can help prevent aggressive incidents by being aware of:

Early signs of intent to aggress - every dog will indicate to some extent a preparedness to attack.  The signs may be as subtle as strong eye contact and a slight stiffening of the body to more overt signs such as raised hackles, growling or barking. By recognising and reacting immediately to these signs by calling your dog to you or turning quickly away - you can prevent aggressive incidents from occurring.  This is an essential part of re-training that requires good observational skills, concentration and timing.

Your dog’s critical distance or space requirement -  Every dog has a distance where he does not react to another dog.  Make certain your dog has enough space around him that he does not feel the need to flight or fight.

4. Use a head halter: this will greatly improve your ability to control your dog allowing you to feel more confident and relax. A head halter is NOT a muzzle however - so you need to remember that your dog will still able to inflict a bite if the other dog moves in too close.

5. Train an excellent recall response or if in doubt, leave your dog on a light line to ensure that you can always successfully call him to you. Use a pleasant voice you want the dog to choose coming to you above all else.  A threatening tone is only likely to make your dog hesitate and will increase adrenalin production in an already aroused dog.  A friendly call off will redirect the dog into a new activity without a further adrenalin surge.  Although a reliable recall cannot prevent someone else’s dog from running over to you, it does give you the option of putting your dog on the lead, holding him while another dog passes or if the other dog looks suitable, allowing an interaction to take place.  This greatly enhances your ability to manage your dogs aggression.

6. Proactive PR: Once your dog is on a lead you have every right to ask the other person to keep their dog a reasonable distance away. Something like: “My dog does not like strange dogs too close, could you please call your dog?” If the owner takes no notice, take it one step further.  “If my dog is on a lead by my side he shouldn’t have to put up with your dog jumping/sniffing at him”.  Point out that many dogs see over-the-top greetings as an assault and you would rather not put your dog in that situation. This puts the onus on the other owner who should be able to call their dog to them.

7. Change the association: Offering your dog a special treat every time a dog approaches and stopping as soon as the dog passes is one way to change your dog’s opinion about other dogs. Soon the arrival of a dog predicts a special treat and focuses the dogs attention on you rather than the dog.

8. Train alternate behaviours: If you want to stop your dog focusing on dogs he doesn’t like, you need to provide him with a pleasant, alternate and incompatible behaviour.  Your dog cannot hold a sit stay and eat hot dogs while fighting at the same time. An even better idea is to train fun behaviours such as shake hands. How about a game that you both enjoy?  These exercises will not only improve the general control you have over your dog but will activate serotin production in your dog’s brain as the cerebral cortex or thinking part of the brain takes over from the limbic system (adrenalin producing).

9. Avoid physical punishment: Shouting at your dog, or jerking on the lead are adrenalin triggers that will produce an instinctive flight or fight response in your dog.  Try to stay cool, calm and collected throughout the treatment process instead. This will enable your dog to engage the cerebral cortex or thinking part of his brain giving him the opportunity to acquire new more desirable behaviours.

10. Be a dependable Leader: Being the leader has nothing to do with dominance. It has to do with the ability to provide for the welfare and safety of your dog. The less reactive, annoyed, nervous and tight leashed you are the more you will impress your dog.  The impression you want to give is that nothing your dog (or any other dog) can do, will bother you, for you are quietly but decidedly confident.

Remember most dogs act aggressively because it has proven to be a successful strategy for keeping other dogs away. By applying the strategies outlined above, your dog will learn that he can relax and trust in you to keep him safe.

There are no quick fixes

There are no easy or definitive solutions to aggression.  It is important to recognise that a dog that regularly acts aggressively to other dogs is not a dog you may ever be able to relax with at the dog club or park.

The younger the dog the better the prognosis but in most cases the problem can be minimized but not totally eliminated. If you accept the role of cool, calm protector, you will need to carry out your duties diligently, planning ahead for every situation.

Remain watchful and observant at all times, but relaxed, ready to step in when and if your dog shows the signs of stress or fear that lead to aggression.  Learn which strategies work best for your dog and apply them consistently.

Although these dogs may never win a canine congeniality award they are often extremely devoted to their owners and for one reason or another, simply prefer the company of humans to their own kind.

This article has been published with the kind permission of Karin Bridge of Get S.M.A.R.T. Dogs in Sydney. She has competed with her own dogs in obedience, agility and dog dancing and is a popular speaker and writer on dog related issues.   She is the training feature writer for the national ‘Dog’s Life’  magazine and has presented seminars to the Veterinary Nurses Council of Australia, The Delta Society, The Association of Pet Dog Trainers and various training clubs across the country.  Karin is a Life Member of the NSW Animal Welfare League and Delta Society Australia and a member of the Association of Pet Dog Trainers Australia.

Almost everything we do can be considered part of a behaviour chain.  For example, when you are reciting the alphabet, you start with “A”, then “B”, then “C” and so on until the task is completed at “Z”.

Each step serves as a cue for the next step; a chain is really a series of signals and behaviours.  The completion of one behaviour in a chain produces the signal for the next action.  Saying “G” is the signal to say “H” next.

Practically any complex behaviour we do in the way of operant behaviour is part of a chain or a multitude of chains: eating, getting dressed, using the computer, counting, brushing your teeth, riding a bike, walking to school and so on.  Behaviour chains are very important to all of us; as is the procedure for building chains, which is called chaining.

Chaining is the reinforcement of successive elements of a behaviour chain.  If you are teaching your dog to retrieve, you are attempting to build a chain, if you are teaching your dog a freestyle routine, you are attempting to build a chain, and if you are teaching your dog to walk to heel, you are also attempting to build a chain.

There are two chaining procedures, forward and back chaining:

Forward chaining

Forward chaining is a chaining procedure that begins with the first element in the chain and progresses to the last element (A to Z).  In forward chaining, you start with the first task in the chain (A).  Once the dog can perform that element reliably, you have him perform the first and second elements (A & B) and reinforce this effort. Do not teach “A”, then teach “B” separately; “A” and “B” are taught together.  When these are mastered, you can move to “A”, “B” and “C”.  Notice they are not taught in isolation; hence the term ‘chain’.

Back chaining

This is often a very effective way of developing complex sequences of behaviour.  In forward chaining, you are teaching A to Z; in back chaining, you are teaching Z to A.  Back chaining is a chaining procedure that begins with the last element in the chain and proceeds to the first element.

As an example of back chaining, here’s a summary of how I teach the retrieve:

• Step 4: Hold, with dummy presented from my hand, once reliable (at least 80% ten second hold) add cue “fetch”

• Step 3: Release to my hand, once reliable add cue “give” or “dead”

• Step 2: Retrieve from the floor, this is shaped in small steps by presenting the dummy lower and lower, until the dog will retrieve from floor; fetch, hold, and release to my hand

• Step 1: Retrieve at distance, this is shaped in small steps by throwing the dummy further and further, until the dog will retrieve from distance; fetch, hold, and release to my hand.

This is a brief condensed example, throughout the game I also shape position such as retrieve to heel, sit and release etc.

Guidelines for chaining

• Define the target behaviour:  To teach a dog to perform the links of a chain, you need to know exactly what those links are.  Sometimes the links are very obvious, other times links are not so obvious.  It may be helpful to run through the target behaviour visually and make notes of all the steps involved.
  

• Reinforce successive elements of the chain: The elements in the chain must be reinforced in sequence.  Reinforce them as they happen.  In the example given, once your dog is reliable at step 4 and you begin to teach step 3, you will be reinforcing steps 4 and 3.  You will either be reinforcing at the end of the chain or at the end of as much of the chain as the dog has learned.  What your dog learns in a chain is not just a number of tasks; he learns to perform those tasks in the right order.  You can start at the beginning of the chain and work your way to the end or vice versa.

• Monitor Results: As with any training, you must keep track of the effects of your efforts.  Is a particular element reliable?  Should it be taught and reinforced a few more times?  Is it time to move on to the next element?  These are judgments that must be made during the chaining process, and they can be made accurately only if you carefully monitor the results you are getting.

Note: In a behaviour chain it helps to understand that a cue is also a conditioned reinforcer. In teaching a behaviour chain, by carefully timing your cues, you can mark a behaviour and reinforce it and cue the next behaviour simultaneously.

The video below shows a very good example of clicker training the retrieve using back chaining:

Related post - Shaping: Guidelines For Success

Have you ever been told that your dog’s behavioural problem is due to it trying to “dominate “you? Have you read or seen on television that your dog is behaving badly because it wants to take over as “Alpha “male?  Or told that your dog is defying you to become “leader of the pack”? If the answer is yes then you have to ask yourself are you being given the correct advice. The answer to this is quite simply no you are not. Your dog is not trying to dominate your world; it never has or ever will do. There is no such job description within a group of domestic dogs as “the Dominant Dog, the Alpha Male or Leader of the Pack”. Surprised?

As a certified clinical animal behaviourist (CCAB) and a member of the Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors (APBC) working in Jersey I am hearing more and more from well meaning dog owners that they are worried that their dog is trying to take over this “leader” role and showing problem behaviour as a result. They hear this from celebrated dog trainers on popular television programmes and by reading their respective best selling books so it’s no surprise that the myth of the Alpha male has now circulated widely around the USA and in the UK and is now prominent in Jersey.

This “dominance” theory relating to dogs living in groups has been in circulation for many years and qualified behaviourists throughout the globe have begun to move away from this as it became clear that domestic dog groups simply do not operate in this way.

The “dominance” theory originally stemmed from wolf behaviour in captivity where unrelated wolves are kept together in small areas. Certain wolves in these groups were observed to be showing behaviour that looked as if there was a hierarchy in place. However, research on wild wolves suggests that wolf packs are not rigidly controlled by a single domineering male. A wild pack usually has an alpha pair but most of the rest of the pack is that pair’s offspring. That means the lead male never fought for dominance but merely reproduced. This “father” wolf does not always lead during hunts or in anything else for that matter. The term “alpha” is no longer used because what it implies is not accurate.

Domestic dogs on the other hand have lived with humans for 15,000 years, and they evolved as scavengers, not hunters. So it is not legitimate to compare dogs with wolves and wolf packs. The evolutionary pressure on dogs was that the least shy animals were the most successful in ransacking human refuse. Today’s free-roaming dogs live in small, less cohesive groups rather than packs and are often alone. They compete with each other for resources but not for the top position of the pack.

To illustrate this more clearly I will describe a common situation that occurs regularly when I visit households with several dogs and humans living together. It will become obvious very quickly that the owners have been watching the many dog behaviour programmes seen on the television and will tell me that they know who there “dominant” dog is. So I will nod sagely and ask which one that is and the conversation usually goes a bit like this:

“Well Lardy the Labrador is the Alpha male because when he’s eating his dinner he won’t let any of the other dogs or my husband go anywhere near him. Sometimes he growls and goes to snap at them and they keep away.” They stop and think for a while and then continue. “Unless it’s a ball and then Shep the Collie is the boss because he won’t allow any of the other dogs in the house or any other dog in the world for that matter go anywhere near him when he has the ball”. Then the husband might come in at this stage and point out that “When Baby the Pomeranian is sitting on your lap dear she is the boss because she tries to bite me if I try and sit next to you”. At which point I refer back to the original question and ask “So which one is leading your pack again?” And the confusion sets in as to which one is actually leader of the pack and a fierce debate ensues. Of course the answer is none of them are. They are simply defending the resources they are most interested in. Just like any group of humans that find themselves placed together they all have different wants, needs, strengths and weakness’s and they all behave differently to achieve a feeling of contentment. Some dogs are greedier than others so will try hard to find and eat more food. Other dogs need to chase things and will challenge other dogs to make sure they can keep on chasing things. Owners are often viewed as highly prized resources as they are well trained feeding machines, comfy cushions, door openers and they know where the lead is kept. There are dogs that want the lot and are often described as “Leaders” because it looks as if they in control of everything. But that is because they are in control of all the resources and not because they want to “lead the pack”.

So does it matter which words we use to describe this resource holding behaviour? Well yes it does because of the way so called “dominance” problems are being solved by the perpetuators of this belief. If, for instance, you are told your dog is trying to dominate you because it barks and lunges towards other dogs that are approaching, you might be advised to put in place a long list of rules and regulations that “show” your dog who the boss is. These might include you eating before your dog, ignoring your dog for 5 minutes when you come in, not allowing it onto chairs or walking through doors first. However, this only teaches your dog that you are in control of food resources, your own personal space, your settee and the door way. It doesn’t address the problem your dog may have with other dogs. You might then be advised that when another dog approaches to use techniques such as the alpha roll (where your dog is rolled onto its back, a submissive position) or to grab the back of its neck with a firm “Grrrr” or to use a pressure halter and force your dogs head away from the approaching dog. There are also those that advocate the use of shaking containers filled with stones, pet corrector cans that give off a loud ear splitting blast and water/citronella sprays that deliver a shot of water or lemon smelling liquid into your dogs face amongst many other similar suggestions. Some well known celebrity “behaviourists” use of a number of punishment devices and out dated correction techniques that are simply not advised in today’s more enlightened society. Some devices such as the Electric Shock collar have already been banned in Scotland and Wales.

However, what are you really teaching your dog? What if your dog was not barking and lunging at other dogs because it wants to lead the pack. What if it was doing this because it was nervous of the other dog’s intentions so makes sure it tells the other dog not to come too close”? You can’t convince your dog not to be scared of another dog if it gets punished every time it sees one.

What if your dog has learned that all approaching dogs means that it suddenly feels pain as the lead is tightened, a can of stones is shaken, it hears a loud ear splitting sound or receives a spray of stinging liquid in the eye. Or worse still it feels the pain of an electric shock. Just because you the owner has the ability to imagine what might happen next doesn’t mean your dog can. It may never understand that the owner is cross and that bad things happen because of what it might do in a few seconds time. It only learns that when another dog approaches its not a very nice experience so tries to stop it happening by the only way it knows how. My advice to owners if they are unsure of whether to use a certain correction device is “would you use it your children?”

There are some dogs that do try and assert their strengths and challenge other dogs to show how big and strong they are but not because they are trying to “lead the pack” but for a number of other different reasons which might include guarding their ball, their owners, their personal space or they may be doing it because it feels good and thus self rewarding. There are certainly behavioural modification programmes that we can put in place to make sure that our dogs are not challenging us over ownership of certain resources and to stop reinforced self rewarding behaviour but the dogs are not challenging us to reach the mythical “Alpha” position.

To copy the techniques directly from some of these television programmes may by detrimental to the welfare of your dog so before you jump onto the “dominant” bandwagon think about all the authentic reasons why your dog might be showing these behaviours because it won’t be due to it wanting to dominate your world and keep away from anyone who says they know just the way to deal with dominating behaviour alpha males and pack leaders.

This article has been published with the kind permission of Rosie Barclay @ www.rosiebarclay.com