By Chris Biro

The question is often asked “Is it important to offer a treat every time you click a behavior?”

Yes it is important to follow each click with a treat. The clicker only gains its value as a training tool due to the association the animal makes with the sound of the clicker and the following treat. Fail to deliver the treat and the effectiveness of the clicker will diminish.

This is different than choosing not to click a correct behavior and thus not reinforcing that correct behavior - see also the article on Variable Reinforcement. The click serves three main functions:

1. The click identifies the exact moment the animal did something that earned it a goody.
2. The click promises a goody has been earned as is on its way.
3. The click signals the end of the behavior.

A click is a bridging signal and it means something very specific to the animal, otherwise it is of no value. That is the concept behind what is termed a secondary reinforcer (or conditioned reinforcer). The secondary reinforcer gains its reinforcing value from being paired with another reinforcer - the primary reinforcer (unconditioned reinforcer) needs no pairing with another reinforcer to have reinforcement effect. If you use the secondary reinforcer and fail to offer the following reinforcement, then essentially you are undoing the pairing and at some point your secondary reinforcer will have no value any more or at minimum will have weakened value. It may cease to function as a secondary reinforcer.

Failing to follow the click with the promised treat will diminish the value and effect of the click as a training tool.

I was just going over some material I have from Marion and Bob Bailey and noticed the following. Due to past discussion I have had with other trainers of what qualifies a reinforcer as a primary or secondary reinforcer I am posting this quote. Some have previously insisted that social interests and play interests are secondary reinforcers because they are “learned”. I have disagreed on the grounds that the fact that they are learned is not part of the definition, and that the only consideration that really matters as per the definition is the inherent reinforcement value and not needing to be paired with another reinforcer to gain reinforcement effect.  Notice here that they specifically and very clearly include play and social activities as primary reinforcers. Again the defining issue is NOT about being “learned”, it is about having reinforcement value without associative pairing with some other reinforcing stimuli.

“The behaviors we have been examining here are typical of what goes on in the case of the so called primary reinforcing stimuli. These are stimuli that are usually associated with basic biological necessities such as food, drink, a mate, the young, body comforts. Primary reinforcers also include other natural, built-in, often preferred behavior patterns that the organism engages in spontaneously. These include social contacts and social activities, play and “exercise” behaviors, exploration. We may also identify here the primary punishing stimuli, or primary aversive stimuli. These are punishers or aversive stimuli that are naturally painful or unpleasant — natural objects or events that the organism in question would tend to avoid if possible.” Marion and Bob Bailey.

Marion Bailey not only had her Ph.D. but also had the experience of being one of B.F. Skinners grad students and she also had the experience of training thousands of animals through her company Animal Behavior Enterprises (ABE).  Her scientifically reviewed paper, Misbehavior of Organisms, written by Marion and Keller Breland (her first husband), had significant impact on the world of operant conditioning. Bob Bailey, as the general manager of ABE, also knew B. F. Skinner and trained thousands of animals. In my personal opinion there is currently no one with equivalent credentials on behavioral subjects than Marion and Bob Bailey.

Misbehavior of Organisms is a short paper that is well worth the time it takes to read it. I would highly encourage everyone interested in animal training to become familiar with this paper. It emphasizes that operant conditioning is only part of the behavior equation, with evolution and instinct being critically important.

Primary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are not dependent on their association with other reinforcers. (Compare secondary reinforcers.)

Secondary Reinforcers: Reinforcers that are dependent on their association with other reinforcers. Also called conditioned reinforcers. (Compare primary reinforcers.)

Condition Reinforcer(s): A stimulus that initially has no reinforcing properties but, through occurring simultaneously with unconditioned or strongly conditioned reinforcers, acquires reinforcing properties. Also called secondary, learned reinforcer.

This article is © Chris Biro @ Wings At Liberty and has been published with the kind permission of the author. Since 1993, Chris Biro has been flight training parrots as part of The Pirate’s Parrot Show, an educationally based pirate-themed parrot show that has performed at state and county fairs across the US since 1989. He flies parrots in a variety of environments ranging from busy state fairgrounds to high mountain desert canyons and cliffs. He is the founder and owner of the freeflight email list, started in 1990, that currently has over 1800 members across the world. Chris has presented about freeflight at events such as American Federation of Aviculture (AFA) Conference, International Association of Avian Trainers and Educators (IAATE) Conference (bird trainers) and Parrots International Symposium (parrot conservation).

Written by Aidan Bindoff

If we expect our dogs to understand us, surely, we must first attempt to understand our dogs!

Dogs learn by the consequences of their actions. “If I drop that ball at his feet, he will often throw it for me” or “Last time I stole a sausage from the barbecue, I burnt my tongue. Better not do that again.”

Dogs also have emotions. “Those fireworks scare me!” or “Someone is at the door, YIPEEE!!!”

Both of those concepts, learning by consequences and the experience of emotion, are something we can relate to. We might learn as children that eating all our vegetables gets us dessert, leaving them on the plate means missing out! We might associate a certain song with a special time in our lives, bringing back good feelings.

Learning By Consequences

Learning by the consequences of our actions is called “Operant Conditioning”. When something has a rewarding consequence, we learn to repeat it. When something doesn’t have any rewarding consequences, we tend not to repeat it. When something has a punishing consequence, we learn to avoid the situation, possibly altogether.

Learning By Association

This is called “Classical Conditioning” or “Pavlovian Conditioning” after Ivan Pavlov who discovered that when a stimulus (such as a ringing bell) is paired with an event (such as food being given), an association is made. For a dog, the ringing bell would have a pleasant association; the dog has learned that food will follow. Here we are getting into the realms of emotion!

Things that you associate with good things will also tend to give you good feelings. Things that you associate with bad things will tend to give you bad feelings.

Operant and Classical conditioning describe different mechanisms for learning, but the two go hand in hand.

How Strong Emotions Affect Learning

It has been observed that when an animal - dog, human or otherwise, is affected by strong emotions, rational learning can be affected. Imagine the ridiculous and terrifying scenario of trying to learn how to program your VCR while a crazed murderer is smashing your door down with an axe. You just want to get out of there; you don’t care if you miss the final episode of ‘Inspector Rex’! (Ok, you still care…)

Imagine teaching a class full of excited kids their ‘multiplication tables’ while they are running around playing with each other, laughing and joking. Hopeless, no good teacher would try to do that without settling them down first, even if it meant doing something different first.

It is the same with dogs. There is no point trying to get rational learning from a frightened, anxious, or just plain over-the-top excitable dog without addressing the underlying issues first.

Emotional Issues Must Be Addressed Before Conseqences Even Matter

There is a very good reason for this, and it has to do with the way the brain works. To ensure survival, both human and dog brains have a simple rule - “do what you have to do to survive”. When a dog perceives a threat, the part of the brain responsible for survival takes precedence over the part of the brain responsible for rational learning.

As an example, imagine you have a dog who is aggressing towards another dog. Using the consequence of punishment (collar correction, verbal etc) will have very little effect in actually punishing (reducing) the behaviour. It may, however, contribute to the cause of that dog’s aggression by reinforcing his unpleasant association with other dogs!

Let’s use the same example but this time we ‘reward’ the dog with food when he shows aggression towards another dog. The act of aggression is unlikely to be reinforced in this case, because that part of the brain is taking a back-seat. The ‘learning by association’ part of the brain, however, is getting a dose of something pleasant in the presence of the other dog. It is starting to make a ‘good’ association with the other dog, instead of a ‘fearful’ association.

It is hard to guess how much “Classical Conditioning” and how much “Operant Conditioning” is taking place until after the event.

It all seems rather paradoxical at first, but hopefully I have explained it well enough that it makes sense! Of course, in the above example it would be far better to give the dog food before he aggresses and try and stay far enough away to avoid a rehearsal of aggression altogether. Then you can reward the dog for non-aggressive behaviour too. You get the benefit of reinforcing good behaviour, and making a positive association all at once - what a great deal!

What Happens Next?

At some point, if we have been successful, the dog will be in a more suitable frame of mind for rational learning. The dog that is nervous around other dogs will not be so nervous any more, and will be able to complete a short ‘sit-stay’ in the obedience class. Eventually he will be able to complete a long ‘drop-stay’ with handler out of sight. The dog who ‘doesn’t like men’ will be able to accept a brief and heavily rewarded ‘stand for exam’ from a man, and eventually, the full examination from teeth to tail!

This article has been published with the kind permission of Aidan Bindoff @ www.positivepetzine.com

Motivation is what spurs a dog to act. So is there some secret to motivating your dog? No, you simply train your dog using what your dog wants, likes, and needs to achieve the behaviours that you want.

Foundation Training

From the very first day your new puppy or rescue dog enters your home start laying a motivational foundation for your dog. This foundation will stay with your dog and will keep him working and cooperating with you during the learning phase of training, and once behaviours have been learnt. This is why it’s called foundation training, if you build it, it lasts.  However if you don’t take the time to build a solid foundation in the early stages of training, what you will find is that further down the line, cracks develop; your dog’s training will break down.

A dog with a strong social drive naturally has the desire to be actively involved as part of a team, this is not every dog’s nature, but with effective motivation you can build this. The end goal in the final stages of training is for your dog to find the activity undertaken with its handler to be intrinsically rewarding. This is why laying the motivational foundation is so important in the early stages of training, don’t make the mistake of thinking that your dog should just naturally comply with your requests, or “do it to please”.

Intrinsic motivation is built by engaging in fun training activities with your dog using primary motivators such as food and play, moving on to life rewards once behaviours have been learned to reliability. Intrinsic motivation simply makes your dog feel good on the inside, by using ongoing positive reinforcement training this motivation is shaped and steadily becomes generalised.

Life Rewards

Many owners miss the opportunity of using everyday life rewards to motivate their dog. Take the time to observe your dog’s behaviour – when at the park what does he like doing, when in class what does he like doing, when at home what does he like doing?  Make a note of the everyday activities your dog enjoys doing, in different environments, and use these activities as a reward to motivate your dog, make them contingent on desirable behaviour.

Modern trainers no longer use punishment based training because it is out-of-date, unkind to the dog, and much less effective than reward based training. Traditional training is about making a dog do what you want, modern training is about motivating a dog to want to do what you want.

Dogs don’t do good or bad behaviours, right or wrong behaviours, they just do behaviours that work, meaning that their behaviour has resulted in some pleasant consequence; a positive reinforcer.  Therefore if we humans would like to teach our dogs what works, then it naturally follows that we should train using a positive reinforcer.

All animals (including humans) learn to repeat behaviours that have had pleasant consequences. Modern reward based training is about getting a dog to want to do what you want by providing an immediate positive reinforcer so the dog learns to do that behaviour again in the future.

The most practical and easy to use primary positive reinforcer is food, food is a primary reinforcer because it is something all animals are born needing to survive, they don’t need praise and petting to survive.  Therefore as a reward, food holds a much higher value as a positive reinforcer than does praise or petting.  Meaning food is a better motivator for learning, a better motivator for working, and a better motivator for your dog to pay attention to you!  Attention is everything, it is the prerequisite for all learning and training. Praise and petting alone cannot compete with environmental distractions for your dog’s attention!

During the early stages of learning food is simply the easiest positive reinforcer to use, but it’s important to note that you will not always need to use food.  Once your dog has learned a repertoire of behaviours to a certain level of reliability, then there are many other reinforcers you can use; play, attention, throw of a ball, toss of a frisbee, game of tug, as well as going for a walk, greeting other dogs,  sniffing a tree, leash going on, leash coming off, door being opened, and countless other life rewards. Life rewards are anything a dog likes doing: going for a walk, likes attaining: attention, or likes gaining access to: the sofa.

So do yourself and your dog a huge favour, throw away your dog’s food bowl now. Use the same amount of food he would be given for free everyday in his bowl and feed it piece by piece, contingent upon desired behaviour. This dispels with the notion of spoiling your dog with treats, instead your dog is doing as nature intended, working for his food. In addition he is learning that it pays to please you and give you attention.

Note: Eating has a calming effect on dogs, dogs that are anxious or reactive tend to calm down when food is used for training. Using harsh corrective methods will only increase the stress level of anxious or reactive dogs in training.

By Karin Bridge - Get S.M.A.R.T. Dogs

(Note: this article deals with the most common type of dog aggression of lunging and barking on lead at other dogs without a history of actually causing injury)

Most pet owners long for a friendly dog that plays happily with each and every dog it meets. The reality however is that many dogs act aggressively in the presence of other dogs.  

Aggression is a complex and emotive issue. When a dog aggresses you immediately have two problems: the canine problem where one dog may be intimidated or injured and a public relations problem where the owner of the victim is justifiably angry.  The first thing you need to do is to assess just how severe your dog’s aggression problem is.

Assessing dog aggression

Behaviourists look at two aspects of aggression to assess the extent of a problem:

1. Bite threshold: how quickly does your dog resort to aggressive behaviour?  Would it take an unusual mix of circumstances before your dog would bite or is it an immediate reaction when he sees another dog?
2. Bite inhibition: how hard does your dog bite?  Dogs should learn to limit the power of their jaws in puppy class bite too hard and play ends.

Perhaps surprisingly, bite inhibition is more important than a high bite threshold. In other words, it is better to have a dog that snaps a lot but never injures another dog, than a dog that seldom fights but when it does the victim ends up needing treatment.

Even though the snapping dog may be a social embarrassment, it is intentionally warning other dogs to keep away without making contact. This gives you the opportunity to work on the problem without putting others at risk.

• Dogs with poor bite inhibition, whose attacks necessitate a visit to the veterinarian - have a serious aggression problem and should be seen by an animal behaviourist who will plan an individual treatment program.

• Dont confuse ‘shouting’ with ‘murder’.  It is quite natural for dogs to occasionally communicate with hackles up, a lip curl and snap. Older dogs and bitches often put puppies and male dogs respectively in their place using just such body language.  If your dog acts in this way with specific dogs without doing any harm you probably don’t have a problem.

How predictable is your dogs aggression?

The more you can predict the target of your dog’s aggression and the context in which it is likely to occur, the easier it is to plan ahead and manage the situation.

Ask yourself these questions:

What type of dog is the target of the aggression?

• All dogs?
• Particular breeds?
• Particular sizes of dog small, large?
• Dogs of a certain appearance length of coat, colour?
• Males or females?  Dogs that have been de-sexed?

 In what context is the aggression likely to occur?

• On leash or off leash?
• When playing roughly?
• Around resources such as a favourite toy or food?
• Near you?
• At specific areas e.g. the park, at home, local streets?

Why do dogs aggress repeatedly ?

1. The scary dog moves away: From your dog &/or from a resource the dog wishes to control such as a toy, food, or you.
2. It makes the dog feel better:  When a dog is stressed by the presence of another dog, a chemical bath of adrenalin and other neurotransmitters build in the brain.  When the dog responds by acting aggressively the chemicals are disseminated and the dog feels physiologically better.

Your dog learns that aggression is a strategy that works and makes him feel better. A little bit of punishment on your part such as shouting ‘NO!’ is unlikely to be sufficient to counteract these two large rewards.

Fear is a main cause of aggression

The vast majority of aggressive attacks are caused by fearfulness and a desire to move away the scary object.  The most common causes of fear aggression are:

#1 Lack of early socialisation with other dogs: Dogs, who have failed to learn canine social etiquette and body language prior to sixteen weeks of age, may have problems socialising with other dogs for the rest of their lives.

This is one of the main reasons puppy preschools were begun - to give puppies, during this important developmental period, the opportunity to interact with a variety of breeds, learning appropriate patterns of play. For some breeds, less genetically inclined to be social with dogs this early opportunity to learn is essential.

#2 A learned response (nurture), caused by restraint and unintentional signalling from owners:  Most dogs are more aggressive on leash than off for three main reasons:

1. The owner unintentionally signals the dog to aggress through his body language and behaviour (see below).
2. Dogs have an opposition reflex, the more you pull back the more the dog will pull in the opposite direction.
3. Unable to flee the situation (restrained by the lead) the only other option is to fight.

Why does the dog think you are signalling an attack?

Imagine this scenario; your dog has a snap at a dog that stuck his nose in his face (an appropriate canine response to rudeness).

Mortified and embarrassed at your nice dog’s rudeness you jerk the lead sharply and say ‘no!’  Your dog finds this attitude of yours rather strange, perhaps it would be better simply to keep dogs at an arm’s distance  - so next time he sees a dog he gives a bit of a growl while the dog is still a few meters away.

Worrying that you may have a problem developing you say ‘no!’ again and this time apply a harder jerk.  Next time you see a dog approaching you decide to be reactive, you tighten the lead, take shorter stiffer steps and hold your breath.

Your dog, who is an expert at reading body language, is now convinced that there is a problem with dogs approaching. As you’ve become so tense he’d better get in there quick before this dog has a chance to attack and/or you get angry with him again.

To make matters worse owners may react to this aggression by:

• Reassuring the dog using a soothing or praise tone of voice “its alright sweetheart, that doggy isn’t going to hurt us” thereby reinforcing the behaviour.

• Applying  punishment or an angry tone of voice thereby increasing adrenalin and associating the appearance of another dog with bad things or

• Setting a bad example shooing the other dog away thereby convincing their dog that strange dogs are to be sent away by whatever means necessary -  for a dog this means an aggressive display.

#3 Nature the role of genetics:  It is worth noting that some owners seem to do everything wrong and still have a friendly, sociable dog while other caring owners who try to do everything right land up with a dog aggressive dog.

Dogs are born with varying degrees of social inclination particularly to animals outside their own family group.  Dogs that are more naturally anxious and reactive to their environment are more likely to resort to aggression as are dogs that like to be in charge of every situation. The best you can do is to try to understand and work with the your own dogs unique personality.

Aggression not directly related to fear

Barrier Frustration - another type of on-leash aggression.  Although many of the above factors may still apply, the main reason for this type of aggression is a frustrated desire to contact the other animal.  Usually this type of aggression is seen in young, out-going dogs that are play deprived or again lack socialisation.

They do not actually want to hurt the other animal but they are desperate to get to it and interact with it in some way.  Unfortunately very often these dogs lack canine social skills so their advances may be met with some aggression as they bounce rudely into the personal space of the other dog.

Barrier frustration can also be seen in cars, or along fences when dogs are prohibited from contacting one another by a physical barrier.

Challenging behaviour - if the target of your male dog’s aggression is other male dogs, then the problem is quite probably a “guy thing”.  This behaviour is most commonly seen in young, entire males but may also be seen in some outgoing bitches.

If your dog frequently engages in challenging fights where dogs are getting hurt then de-sexing is worth considering and the younger the better before fighting becomes a habit which can linger long after the hormones are gone. In the case of females, de-sexing will be of no benefit.

Resource Guarding -  some dogs protect their valued possessions such as balls, tug toys, food bags, and that most valuable of all resources YOU!

Prey drive/aggression - if your dog most often targets fast moving dogs, particularly small white fluffy ones, it is quite likely he/she has a strong prey drive.

This dog may be perfectly well socialised and non-aggressive with dogs in general but once it sees something that looks like a rabbit running, he shifts into a whole other world known as prey drive.  Most dogs have some degree of prey drive but for those with strong, natural instincts to chase and kill, it is potentially a very serious problem.

Prey elicited aggression has a strong genetic component and needs to be treated differently to other aggression problems.  It is mentioned here for diagnostic reasons only.

Steps to treatment

1. Decide the severity of your dog’s aggression problem:  If your dog is more of an embarrassment than a physical danger to other dogs, feel free to implement the following procedures.  If your dog’s aggression problem has resulted in serious injury to other dogs you will need to see a behaviour specialist for further advice.

2. Accept responsibility for your dogs safety and the safety of other dogs.

3. Prevent rehearsal:  Many owners will suggest you let the dogs ‘sort it out’ or ‘it will do my dog good if your dog tells him off’.  While this philosophy may be acceptable for two well socialised dogs with good bite inhibition, it is not going to benefit the dog aggressive dog - it’ll just be more practice and more confirmation of the belief that biting is a good strategy for removing unwanted dogs.

The more your dog rehearses this strategy the more ingrained it will become. That is why it is essential not to put your dog in a position where he feels the need to aggress. You can help prevent aggressive incidents by being aware of:

Early signs of intent to aggress - every dog will indicate to some extent a preparedness to attack.  The signs may be as subtle as strong eye contact and a slight stiffening of the body to more overt signs such as raised hackles, growling or barking. By recognising and reacting immediately to these signs by calling your dog to you or turning quickly away - you can prevent aggressive incidents from occurring.  This is an essential part of re-training that requires good observational skills, concentration and timing.

Your dog’s critical distance or space requirement -  Every dog has a distance where he does not react to another dog.  Make certain your dog has enough space around him that he does not feel the need to flight or fight.

4. Use a head halter: this will greatly improve your ability to control your dog allowing you to feel more confident and relax. A head halter is NOT a muzzle however - so you need to remember that your dog will still able to inflict a bite if the other dog moves in too close.

5. Train an excellent recall response or if in doubt, leave your dog on a light line to ensure that you can always successfully call him to you. Use a pleasant voice you want the dog to choose coming to you above all else.  A threatening tone is only likely to make your dog hesitate and will increase adrenalin production in an already aroused dog.  A friendly call off will redirect the dog into a new activity without a further adrenalin surge.  Although a reliable recall cannot prevent someone else’s dog from running over to you, it does give you the option of putting your dog on the lead, holding him while another dog passes or if the other dog looks suitable, allowing an interaction to take place.  This greatly enhances your ability to manage your dogs aggression.

6. Proactive PR: Once your dog is on a lead you have every right to ask the other person to keep their dog a reasonable distance away. Something like: “My dog does not like strange dogs too close, could you please call your dog?” If the owner takes no notice, take it one step further.  “If my dog is on a lead by my side he shouldn’t have to put up with your dog jumping/sniffing at him”.  Point out that many dogs see over-the-top greetings as an assault and you would rather not put your dog in that situation. This puts the onus on the other owner who should be able to call their dog to them.

7. Change the association: Offering your dog a special treat every time a dog approaches and stopping as soon as the dog passes is one way to change your dog’s opinion about other dogs. Soon the arrival of a dog predicts a special treat and focuses the dogs attention on you rather than the dog.

8. Train alternate behaviours: If you want to stop your dog focusing on dogs he doesn’t like, you need to provide him with a pleasant, alternate and incompatible behaviour.  Your dog cannot hold a sit stay and eat hot dogs while fighting at the same time. An even better idea is to train fun behaviours such as shake hands. How about a game that you both enjoy?  These exercises will not only improve the general control you have over your dog but will activate serotin production in your dog’s brain as the cerebral cortex or thinking part of the brain takes over from the limbic system (adrenalin producing).

9. Avoid physical punishment: Shouting at your dog, or jerking on the lead are adrenalin triggers that will produce an instinctive flight or fight response in your dog.  Try to stay cool, calm and collected throughout the treatment process instead. This will enable your dog to engage the cerebral cortex or thinking part of his brain giving him the opportunity to acquire new more desirable behaviours.

10. Be a dependable Leader: Being the leader has nothing to do with dominance. It has to do with the ability to provide for the welfare and safety of your dog. The less reactive, annoyed, nervous and tight leashed you are the more you will impress your dog.  The impression you want to give is that nothing your dog (or any other dog) can do, will bother you, for you are quietly but decidedly confident.

Remember most dogs act aggressively because it has proven to be a successful strategy for keeping other dogs away. By applying the strategies outlined above, your dog will learn that he can relax and trust in you to keep him safe.

There are no quick fixes

There are no easy or definitive solutions to aggression.  It is important to recognise that a dog that regularly acts aggressively to other dogs is not a dog you may ever be able to relax with at the dog club or park.

The younger the dog the better the prognosis but in most cases the problem can be minimized but not totally eliminated. If you accept the role of cool, calm protector, you will need to carry out your duties diligently, planning ahead for every situation.

Remain watchful and observant at all times, but relaxed, ready to step in when and if your dog shows the signs of stress or fear that lead to aggression.  Learn which strategies work best for your dog and apply them consistently.

Although these dogs may never win a canine congeniality award they are often extremely devoted to their owners and for one reason or another, simply prefer the company of humans to their own kind.

This article has been published with the kind permission of Karin Bridge of Get S.M.A.R.T. Dogs in Sydney. She has competed with her own dogs in obedience, agility and dog dancing and is a popular speaker and writer on dog related issues.   She is the training feature writer for the national ‘Dog’s Life’  magazine and has presented seminars to the Veterinary Nurses Council of Australia, The Delta Society, The Association of Pet Dog Trainers and various training clubs across the country.  Karin is a Life Member of the NSW Animal Welfare League and Delta Society Australia and a member of the Association of Pet Dog Trainers Australia.

Almost everything we do can be considered part of a behaviour chain.  For example, when you are reciting the alphabet, you start with “A”, then “B”, then “C” and so on until the task is completed at “Z”.

Each step serves as a cue for the next step; a chain is really a series of signals and behaviours.  The completion of one behaviour in a chain produces the signal for the next action.  Saying “G” is the signal to say “H” next.

Practically any complex behaviour we do in the way of operant behaviour is part of a chain or a multitude of chains: eating, getting dressed, using the computer, counting, brushing your teeth, riding a bike, walking to school and so on.  Behaviour chains are very important to all of us; as is the procedure for building chains, which is called chaining.

Chaining is the reinforcement of successive elements of a behaviour chain.  If you are teaching your dog to retrieve, you are attempting to build a chain, if you are teaching your dog a freestyle routine, you are attempting to build a chain, and if you are teaching your dog to walk to heel, you are also attempting to build a chain.

There are two chaining procedures, forward and back chaining:

Forward chaining

Forward chaining is a chaining procedure that begins with the first element in the chain and progresses to the last element (A to Z).  In forward chaining, you start with the first task in the chain (A).  Once the dog can perform that element reliably, you have him perform the first and second elements (A & B) and reinforce this effort. Do not teach “A”, then teach “B” separately; “A” and “B” are taught together.  When these are mastered, you can move to “A”, “B” and “C”.  Notice they are not taught in isolation; hence the term ‘chain’.

Back chaining

This is often a very effective way of developing complex sequences of behaviour.  In forward chaining, you are teaching A to Z; in back chaining, you are teaching Z to A.  Back chaining is a chaining procedure that begins with the last element in the chain and proceeds to the first element.

As an example of back chaining, here’s a summary of how I teach the retrieve:

• Step 4: Hold, with dummy presented from my hand, once reliable (at least 80% ten second hold) add cue “fetch”

• Step 3: Release to my hand, once reliable add cue “give” or “dead”

• Step 2: Retrieve from the floor, this is shaped in small steps by presenting the dummy lower and lower, until the dog will retrieve from floor; fetch, hold, and release to my hand

• Step 1: Retrieve at distance, this is shaped in small steps by throwing the dummy further and further, until the dog will retrieve from distance; fetch, hold, and release to my hand.

This is a brief condensed example, throughout the game I also shape position such as retrieve to heel, sit and release etc.

Guidelines for chaining

• Define the target behaviour:  To teach a dog to perform the links of a chain, you need to know exactly what those links are.  Sometimes the links are very obvious, other times links are not so obvious.  It may be helpful to run through the target behaviour visually and make notes of all the steps involved.
  

• Reinforce successive elements of the chain: The elements in the chain must be reinforced in sequence.  Reinforce them as they happen.  In the example given, once your dog is reliable at step 4 and you begin to teach step 3, you will be reinforcing steps 4 and 3.  You will either be reinforcing at the end of the chain or at the end of as much of the chain as the dog has learned.  What your dog learns in a chain is not just a number of tasks; he learns to perform those tasks in the right order.  You can start at the beginning of the chain and work your way to the end or vice versa.

• Monitor Results: As with any training, you must keep track of the effects of your efforts.  Is a particular element reliable?  Should it be taught and reinforced a few more times?  Is it time to move on to the next element?  These are judgments that must be made during the chaining process, and they can be made accurately only if you carefully monitor the results you are getting.

Note: In a behaviour chain it helps to understand that a cue is also a conditioned reinforcer. In teaching a behaviour chain, by carefully timing your cues, you can mark a behaviour and reinforce it and cue the next behaviour simultaneously.

Related post - Shaping: Guidelines For Success

Have you ever been told that your dog’s behavioural problem is due to it trying to “dominate “you? Have you read or seen on television that your dog is behaving badly because it wants to take over as “Alpha “male?  Or told that your dog is defying you to become “leader of the pack”? If the answer is yes then you have to ask yourself are you being given the correct advice. The answer to this is quite simply no you are not. Your dog is not trying to dominate your world; it never has or ever will do. There is no such job description within a group of domestic dogs as “the Dominant Dog, the Alpha Male or Leader of the Pack”. Surprised?

As a certified clinical animal behaviourist (CCAB) and a member of the Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors (APBC) working in Jersey I am hearing more and more from well meaning dog owners that they are worried that their dog is trying to take over this “leader” role and showing problem behaviour as a result. They hear this from celebrated dog trainers on popular television programmes and by reading their respective best selling books so it’s no surprise that the myth of the Alpha male has now circulated widely around the USA and in the UK and is now prominent in Jersey.

This “dominance” theory relating to dogs living in groups has been in circulation for many years and qualified behaviourists throughout the globe have begun to move away from this as it became clear that domestic dog groups simply do not operate in this way.

The “dominance” theory originally stemmed from wolf behaviour in captivity where unrelated wolves are kept together in small areas. Certain wolves in these groups were observed to be showing behaviour that looked as if there was a hierarchy in place. However, research on wild wolves suggests that wolf packs are not rigidly controlled by a single domineering male. A wild pack usually has an alpha pair but most of the rest of the pack is that pair’s offspring. That means the lead male never fought for dominance but merely reproduced. This “father” wolf does not always lead during hunts or in anything else for that matter. The term “alpha” is no longer used because what it implies is not accurate.

Domestic dogs on the other hand have lived with humans for 15,000 years, and they evolved as scavengers, not hunters. So it is not legitimate to compare dogs with wolves and wolf packs. The evolutionary pressure on dogs was that the least shy animals were the most successful in ransacking human refuse. Today’s free-roaming dogs live in small, less cohesive groups rather than packs and are often alone. They compete with each other for resources but not for the top position of the pack.

To illustrate this more clearly I will describe a common situation that occurs regularly when I visit households with several dogs and humans living together. It will become obvious very quickly that the owners have been watching the many dog behaviour programmes seen on the television and will tell me that they know who there “dominant” dog is. So I will nod sagely and ask which one that is and the conversation usually goes a bit like this:

“Well Lardy the Labrador is the Alpha male because when he’s eating his dinner he won’t let any of the other dogs or my husband go anywhere near him. Sometimes he growls and goes to snap at them and they keep away.” They stop and think for a while and then continue. “Unless it’s a ball and then Shep the Collie is the boss because he won’t allow any of the other dogs in the house or any other dog in the world for that matter go anywhere near him when he has the ball”. Then the husband might come in at this stage and point out that “When Baby the Pomeranian is sitting on your lap dear she is the boss because she tries to bite me if I try and sit next to you”. At which point I refer back to the original question and ask “So which one is leading your pack again?” And the confusion sets in as to which one is actually leader of the pack and a fierce debate ensues. Of course the answer is none of them are. They are simply defending the resources they are most interested in. Just like any group of humans that find themselves placed together they all have different wants, needs, strengths and weakness’s and they all behave differently to achieve a feeling of contentment. Some dogs are greedier than others so will try hard to find and eat more food. Other dogs need to chase things and will challenge other dogs to make sure they can keep on chasing things. Owners are often viewed as highly prized resources as they are well trained feeding machines, comfy cushions, door openers and they know where the lead is kept. There are dogs that want the lot and are often described as “Leaders” because it looks as if they in control of everything. But that is because they are in control of all the resources and not because they want to “lead the pack”.

So does it matter which words we use to describe this resource holding behaviour? Well yes it does because of the way so called “dominance” problems are being solved by the perpetuators of this belief. If, for instance, you are told your dog is trying to dominate you because it barks and lunges towards other dogs that are approaching, you might be advised to put in place a long list of rules and regulations that “show” your dog who the boss is. These might include you eating before your dog, ignoring your dog for 5 minutes when you come in, not allowing it onto chairs or walking through doors first. However, this only teaches your dog that you are in control of food resources, your own personal space, your settee and the door way. It doesn’t address the problem your dog may have with other dogs. You might then be advised that when another dog approaches to use techniques such as the alpha roll (where your dog is rolled onto its back, a submissive position) or to grab the back of its neck with a firm “Grrrr” or to use a pressure halter and force your dogs head away from the approaching dog. There are also those that advocate the use of shaking containers filled with stones, pet corrector cans that give off a loud ear splitting blast and water/citronella sprays that deliver a shot of water or lemon smelling liquid into your dogs face amongst many other similar suggestions. Some well known celebrity “behaviourists” use of a number of punishment devices and out dated correction techniques that are simply not advised in today’s more enlightened society. Some devices such as the Electric Shock collar have already been banned in Scotland and Wales.

However, what are you really teaching your dog? What if your dog was not barking and lunging at other dogs because it wants to lead the pack. What if it was doing this because it was nervous of the other dog’s intentions so makes sure it tells the other dog not to come too close”? You can’t convince your dog not to be scared of another dog if it gets punished every time it sees one.

What if your dog has learned that all approaching dogs means that it suddenly feels pain as the lead is tightened, a can of stones is shaken, it hears a loud ear splitting sound or receives a spray of stinging liquid in the eye. Or worse still it feels the pain of an electric shock. Just because you the owner has the ability to imagine what might happen next doesn’t mean your dog can. It may never understand that the owner is cross and that bad things happen because of what it might do in a few seconds time. It only learns that when another dog approaches its not a very nice experience so tries to stop it happening by the only way it knows how. My advice to owners if they are unsure of whether to use a certain correction device is “would you use it your children?”

There are some dogs that do try and assert their strengths and challenge other dogs to show how big and strong they are but not because they are trying to “lead the pack” but for a number of other different reasons which might include guarding their ball, their owners, their personal space or they may be doing it because it feels good and thus self rewarding. There are certainly behavioural modification programmes that we can put in place to make sure that our dogs are not challenging us over ownership of certain resources and to stop reinforced self rewarding behaviour but the dogs are not challenging us to reach the mythical “Alpha” position.

To copy the techniques directly from some of these television programmes may by detrimental to the welfare of your dog so before you jump onto the “dominant” bandwagon think about all the authentic reasons why your dog might be showing these behaviours because it won’t be due to it wanting to dominate your world and keep away from anyone who says they know just the way to deal with dominating behaviour alpha males and pack leaders.

This article has been published with the kind permission of Rosie Barclay @ www.rosiebarclay.com

• Train a subsitute behaviour:  If the dog is not doing the undesirable behaviour, he is doing something else.  If he’s being quiet, he’s not barking.  If his feet are all on the floor, he’s not jumping.  When a behaviour gets a reward (either from you, the environment or the dog himself) it will be repeated.  You need to be sure that it’s the desirable alternative that gets the reward and attention from you.  Think about what you want the dog TO DO rather than what you want to stop.  Try to get the dog to do the desired behaviour in place of the unwanted one.  Be sure to reward heavily for the desired behaviour, especialy if the dog chooses that behaviour on his own.

• Undestand normal dog behaviour:  Often, a behaviour people don’t like is perfectly normal for a dog to do (or for the breed of dog to do.)  In some cases, such as chewing, it’s a behaviour the dog NEEDS to do.  By giving the dog an appropriate outlet for these natural behaviours, the dog will be much happier and more relaxed.  You can use these highly desired behaviours as a reward for when the dog does something you like.  If your puppy is chewing on furniture (then you have not taken appropriate steps for management/prevention) but you can ask the pup to sit and then reward that desired behaviour with a Kong he’s allowed to chew on.  Often supervision and redirecting the dog to an appropriate outlet is the best solution for natural dog behaviours.

• Be consistent:  Dogs learn much faster when the rules remain the same.  If you sometimes got a pay cheque for going to work and sometimes got it for staying home, but the rules about which was which weren’t clear, you would have some stress and confusion.  People do this to their dogs all the time!  Jumping up is OK unless I’m wearing nice clothes or your feet are dirty.  Barking is ok unless the neighbours have been complaining or a sleeping baby is visiting.  Sometimes it’s ok to get on the sofa, sometimes it’s not.  The problem is compounded when more than one person routinely interacts with the dog.  Make sure all family members understand and apply the same rules.  Dogs are often willing to follow the rules when the rules are clear and consistent.

• Learn to earn:  The “learn to earn” program, when implemented in a reasonable manner, can greatly help increase the odds of good behaviour.  When the dog learns that the way to get what he wants is by doing something you like, your dog will start doing what you like more often.  This program also helps teach the dog the concept of self-control.  If mugging you for food works, why should he sit politely during meals?  If pulling on the leash works, why should he try to keep the leash loose?  But, if the dog has to sit before he gets a treat and has to keep the leash loose before you are willing to move a single step, he has more reason to try self-control.  This program goes hand in hand with helping the dog toward an acceptable behaviour and then rewarding that behaviour with something the dog wants.

• Look for the good:  We are a punishing species.  It is a proven fact that when a person uses punishment and it gets results, the use of punishment is more likely.  However, the same can be said of using rewarding methods.  If you are watching for behaviours you can reward (& you reward them) those behaviours will become more frequent.  This works better than always looking for what the dog is doing wrong so you can yell or jerk on the leash.  The punishment method will cause a dog to hide the behaviour from you.  The reward method will cause the dog to bond with you because he wants to figure out what you want him to do (so he can get what he wants.)  For some complex behaviours, you might need to gradually “shape” the behaviour of the dog to get it closer and closer to the desired behaviour.  You can do this by timing your rewards in a way that keeps the dog trying and moving toward the desired behaviour.

• Be active:  Most dogs do not get the exercise they require.  Many are over weight and bored out of their minds.  By keeping their mind and body active, the dog will have less time to get himself into trouble by creating his own fun games- like let’s see how many springs are inside the bed.

• Don’t mix signals:  As humans, we communicate primarily with words.  Dogs, however, are best at reading non-verbal signals like body language and tone of voice.  We also tend to use our words in a confusing way- saying “down” when we mean “get off” and repeating the cue so fast it becomes a new cue (“sit, sit, sit”.)  Now the dog waits to hear “sit-sit-sit” before he responds. Our message and tone can be confusing too.  Saying “come here!” in a ruff and growly voice does not indicate to the dog that going toward you will be safe.  Dog’s are masters at reading our body language.  Even subtle changes like breathing patterns and raised eye brows are often noticed by dogs.  Be aware of what you are saying with your tone and body to be sure it’s not confusing the dog.  If your dog is not correctly responding to what you ask, check to make sure your body language and tone aren’t asking for something different (or indicating a bad mood that could make the dog hesitant to respond.)

• Train, train, train:  Dogs do not come with “good behaviour” naturally.  In fact, most behaviour that DOES come naturally to a dog is in direct contradiction with what we want.  By looking for and rewarding the desired behaviours, and redirecting unwanted behaviours into ones we can reward, you will be teaching your dog what you like and expect.  Just as with raising a small child, teaching dogs what will make you happy and what will upset you is a 24 hour/ 7 days a week job!  Dogs and children are always learning.  You need to make a decision to be sure they are learning what you want them to learn.

• Love your dog:  It is very easy to get frustrated, when this happens, take a moment to take a deep breath, then assess the situation.  What can you do to prevent it?  What alternative behaviour can you try to get the dog to do so you can reward it?  Is it a natural behaviour the dog needs an outlet for?  Is anyone else allowing the dog to practice the unwanted behaviour?  Can you use the situation to teach the dog self-control?  Does the dog need more exercise?  Would the dog be doing this behaviour if he was tired?  Are your desires being communicated clearly to the dog?  When you answer these questions, it is likely that you will have something to work with.  You’ll have a behaviour (or more than one) you can watch for and reward.  You will understand how to prevent the unwanted and reward the good dog.

In dog training if a behaviour never occurs, or does not occur on a frequent basis, we say that it is not in the dog’s repertoire of behaviours.  Shaping is a way of adding behaviours to a dog’s repertoire.  Shaping is used when the target behaviour does not yet exist; for example weaving poles,  or when the target behaviour occurs infrequently; for example lying down with front paws crossed. In shaping, what is reinforced is some approximation of the target behaviour.

Approximation means any behaviour that resembles the desired behaviour or takes the dog closer to the desired behaviour. Successive approximations are steps toward the target behaviour, the behaviour you want to shape.

In playing the game of “Hot & Cold”, you reinforce any movement that takes the player closer to the prize.  Each of those successive movements is a closer approximation of the desired behaviour.  If the prize is under the sofa, and the player is moving toward the sofa, every time the player takes a step toward the sofa, you are yelling “hotter”, and you are reinforcing the behaviour.  If the player moves away from the sofa, you would yell, “colder” (non-reinforcing).

The general guideline is that you are reinforcing any behaviour that is a closer approximation of the target behaviour than the behaviour you reinforced last.  If a new approximation does not occur, you reinforce the last approximation again.  If an approximation is repeated and reinforced three to four times, you can withhold reinforcement the next time that behaviour appears. By witholding reinforcement you are increasing the criteria, you are asking the dog to figure out what more it needs to offer for reinforcement.  This is why I love shaping over other ways of getting behaviours, shaping truly does make a dog think.

Guidelines for shaping

• Define the target behaviour:  The behaviour you want hasn’t occurred yet; it’s the goal at the end of the process, so you must decide what behaviour is to be “shaped up”.  To get to the target behaviour, you must have a clear idea of what it is.

• Reinforce successive approximations of the target behaviour:  The target behaviour is ‘shaped up’ by reinforcing the nearest approximations of that behaviour.  You decide what these nearest approximations are, you set the criteria for each approximation. If the dog gets stuck at a particular step, you have two choices; you can go back a step and reinforce the previous approximation, or you can withhold reinforcement in order to induce variability in the dog’s behaviour.

• Reinforce an approximation several times or until a closer approximation appears, whichever comes first:  If no new approximation has appeared after several reinforcements, withhold reinforcement until a new approximation occurs.  In general, shaping progresses more rapidly when the increases in the criteria for reinforcement are small.  When you hold out for something better, the something better should be only a very slight improvement.  If an approximation appears that is a big advance, reinforce it, but don’t hold out for big advances.

• Monitor results:  The only way you can gauge how successful you are being at shaping behaviour is by noting what changes in behaviour are occurring.  Are you seeing progress toward the target behaviour?  Is the behaviour that occurs now closer to the target behaviour than the behaviour you got earlier?  Is it time to increase criteria for a closer approximation of the target behaviour? Has the behaviour begun to break down? Should you move back to a previous level?  Do you need to increase the value of the reinforcer? Are you able to keep the rate of reinforcement high?  These are questions you must constantly ask yourself while shaping behaviour and you can only answer them by paying close attention to changes in behaviour offered or not offered by the dog.  Taking mental data on each step, keeping track of approximations, criteria, and rate of reinforcement, help you determine answers.

Note: You will have to make judgments about when to raise the criteria and by how much; sometimes, you will be wrong.  It is best to err on the side of caution, reinforcing behaviour at a given step for just a few more trials and make very small increases in the criteria for reinforcement.  If you make the mistake of moving too quickly, then progress will break down and you will need to move back to a previous level.

Here is a really good example of shaping and clicker training. Jessie an assistant dog learning the task of turning on a light switch in under 4 minutes:

Problems with aversive dog training techniques

UK animal welfare, behaviour, training and veterinary organisations1 are warning of the possible dangers of using techniques for training dogs that can cause pain and fear, such as some of those seen used by Cesar Millan, who has announced a UK tour next year.

The organisations have joined forces to voice their serious concerns about techniques which pose welfare problems for dogs and significant risk to owners who may copy them. These concerns are shared, and the statement supported, by similar organisations around the world2 and in continental Europe3.

Aversive training techniques, which have been seen to be used by Cesar Millan, are based on the principle of applying an unpleasant stimulus to inhibit behaviour. This kind of training technique can include the use of prong collars, electric shock collars, restricting dogs′ air supply using nooses/leads or pinning them to the ground, which can cause pain and distress. The use of such techniques may compromise the welfare of dogs and may worsen the behavioural problems they aim to address, potentially placing owners at considerable risk. A number of scientific studies have found an association between the use of aversive training techniques and the occurrence of undesired behaviours in dogs.

The organisations believe that the use of such training techniques is not only unacceptable from a welfare perspective, but that this type of approach is not necessary for the modification of dog behaviour. Dog trainers all over the UK use reward-based methods to train dogs very effectively. Where dogs have behaviours which owners find unacceptable, such as aggression or destruction, qualified behaviourists achieve long term changes in behaviour through the use of established and validated techniques of behaviour modification without subjecting dogs to training techniques which may cause pain or distress.

We urge dog owners to carefully consider the help they choose to train their dogs or tackle behavioural problems. Anyone can call themselves a behaviour expert, but we believe that only those with a combination of appropriate qualifications, up to date knowledge as well as skills and experience should be treating dogs, and should only do so in a way which does not put the welfare of the dogs at risk.

1Dogs Trust, The Blue Cross, Royal Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA), The Blue Dog, Wood Green Animal Shelters, World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA), The Kennel Club, Raystede Centre for Animal Welfare, Canine Partners, UK , Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour (ASAB), Association of Pet Behaviour Counsellors (APBC), Association of Pet Dog Trainers, UK (APDT, UK), UK Registry of Canine Behaviours (UKRCB), Companion Animal Behaviour Therapy Study Group (CABTSG), British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA) and British Veterinary Association (BVA).

2Australian Veterinary Association (AVA), Australian Veterinary Behaviour Interest Group (AVBIG), American Veterinary Society of Animal Behavior (AVSAB), American College of Veterinary Behaviorists (ACVB), and The Certification Council for Professional Dog Trainers, Inc. (CCPDT)(USA).

3European Society of Clinical Veterinary Ethology (ESCVE), European College of Veterinary Behavioural Medicine – Companion Animals (ECVBM-CA), the Flemish Veterinary Working Group on Ethology (VDWE) and Norwegian Association for Pet Behaviour (NAPB) Norsk Atferdsgruppe for Selskapsdyr (NAS).

Further information on:

• What’s Wrong with Using ‘Dominance’ to Explain the Behaviour of Dogs?

• If Not Dominance…How do we Explain the Development of Social Behaviour?

• What are the Implications of Using Training Techniques Which Induce Fear or Pain in Dogs?

• Should I Follow Status Reduction Programmes with my Dog?

• How do I Find a Suitable Dog Training Course?

• What do I do if my Dog has a ‘Behaviour Problem’?

Source: www.dogwelfarecampaign.org